Abstract

This study uses panel data regression to evaluate the impact of digital infrastructure, public investment in education, and urbanization on higher education engagement (represented by the enrollment rate) in 've ASEAN countries: Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines (ASEAN-5) from 2010 to 2025. By using the Driscoll-Kraay method, the research solves common model problems like heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation. The novelty of this study is measuring the time delay of technology. It 'nds that the Internet needs two years to truly boost systemic engagement. Speci'cally, the study shows an urbanization paradox: high living costs caused by fast population growth in big cities create economic barriers, which break learners' engagement. These results help governments plan digital strategies and build student support policies to maintain sustainable engagement with higher education.

Keywords: ASEAN-5, digital infrastructure, driscoll-Kraay, higher education engagement, urbanization paradox.